艾萨克·牛顿

伊萨克·牛顿爵士（Sir Isaac Newton，儒略历1642年 12月25日-1727年 3月20日格里历1643年 1月4日—1727年 3月31日，数学家、科学家和哲学家，同时是英国当时炼金术热衷者。他在1687年 7月5日发表的《自然哲学的数学原理》（Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica）里提出的万有引力定律以及他的牛顿运动定律是经典力学的基石。牛顿还和莱布尼茨各自独立地发明了微积分。他总共留下了50多万字的炼金术手稿和100多万字的神学手稿。牛顿被誉为人类历史上最伟大的科学家之一。他的万有引力定律在人类历史上第一次把天上的运动和地上的运动统一起来，为日心说提供了有力的理论支持，使得自然科学的研究最终挣脱了宗教的枷锁。牛顿还发现了太阳光的颜色构成，还制作了世界上第一架反射望远镜。

生平简介

牛顿出生于英格兰林肯郡的小镇乌尔斯普。在牛顿出生之前三个月，他的父亲就去世了，两年之后他的母亲改嫁他人，把牛顿留给了他的祖母。牛顿的天才很早就展现出来。牛顿最开始在乡村学校读书，12岁的时候离家到格兰瑟文法学校就读。在格兰瑟他寄宿在当地的一个药剂师家中并最终和这名药剂师的继女订了婚。1661年，也就是19岁的时候，牛顿进入剑桥大学三一学院学习。在那里，牛顿沉静在学习之中而疏忽了未婚妻，药剂师的继女就嫁给了别人。牛顿后来终身未婚。在那个时代，大学里仅仅教授亚里士多德的理论，但是牛顿对于当代哲学家的思想更感兴趣，比如，笛卡尔、伽利略、哥白尼、开普勒等等。在1665年他发现了二项式定理，同一年他获得了文学学士学位。不久就爆发了瘟疫，学校被迫关闭，牛顿回到家乡继续他的研究。在接下来的两年之内，牛顿在微积分、光学和重力问题上做出了卓越的工作。 1667年牛顿重返剑桥大学。1669年 10月27日牛顿被选为卢卡斯数学教授。1672年起他被接纳为皇家学会会员，1703年被选为皇家学会主席直到逝世。 1696年牛顿任造币厂监督，1699年升任厂长，1705年因改革币制有功受封为爵士。 1727年3月31日，牛顿因患肾结石症医治无效，在伦敦郊区肯辛顿寓中逝世，葬于伦敦威斯敏斯特教堂(westminster abbey)。

宗教觀點

引力定律成為了牛顿的最響譽的發現。牛頓作出警告，對使此發現去觀看宇宙。宇宙只一個僅僅機器, 像一個偉大的時鐘。他說, "重力解釋行星的運行, 但無法解釋是誰設置了行星在運行。上帝治理所有事和知道凡事的本質或凡事能做。" 雖然牛頓對科學的愛好是人所共知的,而聖經才是他的最大的激情。比於科學他致力了更多時間於聖經的研究, 並且說, "我根本上相信聖經是作為上帝的話語, 由那些被靈感的人寫成。我每天也學習聖經。" 牛頓是個秘密的 Unitarianism 和「亞流學說」信奉者; 他不相信上帝是三位一體教會的教條。若這秘密在他有生之年被揭露,當時的法律會撤除他劍橋大學教授一職。有關他在這題目上的文字寫作，只作為他的遺作被出版了。他試圖找出暗藏在聖經之內的訊息，但不能成功(參見聖經密碼) 。

牛顿的著作

- 流数法(1671年)
- 自然哲学的数学原理(1687年)
- 光学(1704年)

外部链接

- [http://www.newtonproject.ic.ac.uk/ The Newton Project - Imperial College London] category:英国物理学家 category:英国数学家 N N ja:アイザック・ニュートン ko:아이작 뉴턴 ms:Isaac Newton simple:Isaac Newton th:ไอแซก นิวตัน

科学家

科学家是一个泛称，指在自然科学领域里的专家，以及使用科学方法做研究的人。传统上数学也是一门科学，但在现代人倾向不认为数学家是科学家，因为数学发现与科学发现的方法不同：科学发现一般都可以透过实验来证明，但数学的理论却有不少只是一个理论，而没有实验去作实证。传统上被认为科学家的专家包括:
- 天文学家
- 生物学家
- 植物学家
- 化学家
- 树木学家
- 生态学家
- 昆虫学家
- 地质学家
- 爬虫学家
- 水力学家
- 鱼类学家
- 运动医学家
- 鳞翅目昆虫学家
- 湖泊学家
- 矿物学家
- 鸟类学家
- 物理学家
- 流变学家
- 地震学家
- 毒素学家
- 病毒学家
- 动物学家
- 心理学家
- 精神病学家
- 医学家

参见

天文学家列表 - 生物学家列表 - 化学家列表 - 地质学家列表 - 工程师列表 - 数学家列表 - 鸟类学家列表 - 物理学家列表 - 发明者列表诺贝尔奖 - 菲尔斯数学奖 - 传记 - 科学 - 偽科學 category:科学家 simple:Scientist

国际单位

注：国际单位有时也被用作国际单位制单位(SI Unit)的简称。请参看上面的国际单位制条目。国际单位是用生物活性来表示某些抗生素、激素、维生素及抗毒素量的药学单位。以下是1个国际单位维生素A、C、D、E、青霉素的实际质量：维生素A：1 国际单位（IU） = 0.300μg 结晶视黄醇 = 0.344μg 维生素A醋酸酯 = 0.550μg 维生素A棕榈酸酯 = 0.358μg 维生素A丙酸酯 = 1 美国药典单位（USP）维生素C：1 国际单位（IU） = 50μg 抗坏血酸维生素D：1 国际单位（IU） = 0.025μg 维生素D3（晶体） = 1 美国药典单位（USP） = 1 国际雏鸡单位（ICU）维生素E：1 国际单位（IU） = 1mg DL-α-生育酚醋酸酯 = 1 美国药典单位（USP）青霉素：1 国际单位（IU） = 0.60μg 结晶青霉素G钠盐 Category:药物 Category:度量衡

Fenian raids

The Fenian raids were attacks by members of the Fenian Brotherhood based in the United States, on British army forts, customs posts and other targets in Canada in order to bring pressure on Britain to withdraw from Ireland, between 1866 and 1871. The raids were successfully repelled by British forces and local militias. They divided many Irish-Canadians, many of whom were torn between loyalty to their new home and sympathy for the aims of the Fenians. A lot of the Irish, particularly the Protestants, were fiercely loyal to Britain and fought the Fenians. While the U.S. authorities arrested the men and confiscated their arms afterwards, many in government had turned a blind eye to the preparations for the invasion, angered at British support for the Confederacy during the American Civil War. There were five Fenian raids to note. Canada was and is a particularly strong region for Orangeism due to the large number of Protestant immigrants from Ireland and Scotland.

Campobello Island raid (1866)

: See main article Campobello Island raid This Fenian raid occurred in April, 1866, at Campobello Island.

Niagara raid (1866)

:see main articles Battle of Ridgeway and Battle of Fort Erie (1866) In 1866, the Fenians had split into two factions, with the original faction, led by Fenian founder John O'Mahony focussed more on fundraising for rebels in Ireland. The leaders of the more militant "senate faction" believed that even a marginally successful invasion of the Province of Canada or other parts of British North America would provide them with leverage in their efforts. After an April attempt to raid New Brunswick that had been blessed by O'Mahony failed, the senate faction Fenians hatched their own plan for an invasion into Canada West (now southern Ontario) from Buffalo, New York. Fenian commander John O'Neill and an Irish-American force crossed the Niagara River and skirmished with a brigade of Canadian militia near Ridgeway, Canada West (now Ontario) on 2 June 1866. Several hundred other Fenians (Canadian sources claim up to 3,000) remained in the US, prevented from crossing the river by the arrival of the US Navy's side-wheeler gunboat USS Michigan. O'Neill's 800 Fenian soldiers called themselves the "Irish Republican Army", and some wore uniforms with "IRA" buttons. This is considered to be the first use of the term. (A well-known fanciful painting of the skirmish in the National Archives of Canada depicts a green flag with the letters IRA over a gold harp; in fact, the most common Fenian emblem at this time was a sunburst.) After the first clash, the Canadians retreated to Port Colborne at the Lake Erie end of the Welland Canal, while the Fenians rested at Ridgeway briefly before themselves returning to Fort Erie. Another fight followed there that saw the surrender of another small group of local Canadian militia that had moved into the Fenian rear. But after considering the inability of reinforcements to cross the river and the approach of large numbers of both militia and British regulars, the remaining Fenians chose to return to Buffalo. They were intercepted by the Michigan, and surrendered to American naval personnel. President Andrew Johnson's proclamation requiring enforcement of the laws of neutrality was not issued until five days after the beginning of the invasion. Both US General Ulysses S. Grant and US General George Meade went to Buffalo, New York to assess the situation. In the meantime, following instructions from General Grant, General Meade issued strict orders to prevent anyone from further violating the border. General Grant then proceeded to St. Louis while General Meade, finding that the battle at Ridgeway was over and the Fenian army interned in Buffalo, proceeded to Ogdensburg, New York to oversee the situation in the St. Lawrence River area. The US Army was then instructed to seize Fenian weapons and ammunition, and to prevent more border crossings. Further instructions on 7 June 1866 were to arrest anyone who looked like they might be a Fenian. Ironically, although they did not do much to advance the cause of Irish independence, the 1866 raids and the efforts of Canadian colonial troops to repulse them helped to galvanize support for the Confederation of Canada in 1867. Many members of today's Canadian army regiment, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, return to the Ridgeway battle site each year on the weekend closest to the June 2nd anniversary for a bicycle tour of the battle sites, and to toast their fallen comrades at the bar located in the centre of their former lines at the corner of Garrison and Ridge Roads. Alexander Muir , a Scottish immigrant, author of the former Canadian anthem "The Maple Leaf Forever" and member of the Orange Order fought at Ridgeway with the Queens Own Rifles.

Pigeon Hill raid (1866)

: See main article Pigeon Hill raid This Fenian raid occurred in July, 1866, at Pigeon Hill.

Mississquoi County raid (1870)

: See main articles Battle of Eccles Hill and Battle of Trout River This Fenian raid occurred during 1870, which resulted in the skirmishes of Eccles Hill and Trout River.

Pembina raid (1871)

: See main article Pembina raid This Fenian raid occurred in Manitoba during 1871. Category:Conflicts in Canada Category:Fenian Raids

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